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Libya
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Libya ( ليبيا ; Libyan vernacular: Lībya ; Amazigh: ), officially the '''Socialist People's Libyan Arab Great Jamahiriya, SPLAGJ''' ( ), is a country located in North Africa. Bordering the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Libya lies between Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west. With an area of almost 1.8 million square kilometres (700,000 sq mi), 90% of which is desert, Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa by area, and the 17th largest in the world.[U.N. Demographic Yearbook, (2003), [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table03.pdf "Demographic Yearbook (3) Pop., Rate of Pop. Increase, Surface Area & Density"], ''United Nations Statistics Division'', Accessed July 15, 2006] The capital, Tripoli, is home to 1.7 million of Libya's 5.7 million people. The three traditional parts of the country are Tripolitania, the Fezzan and Cyrenaica.
The name "Libya" is an indigenous (i.e. Berber) one, which is attested in ancient Egyptian texts as r:Z1 D58 G43 T14 A56:Z2, ''R'bw'' (= ''Libu''), which refers to one of the tribes of Berber peoples living west of the Nile. In Greek the tribesmen were called ''Libyes'' and their country became "Libya", although in ancient Greece the term had a broader meaning, encompassing all of North Africa west of Egypt. Later on, at the time of Ibn Khaldun, the same big tribe was known as ''Lawata''.
Libya has the fifth highest GDP (PPP) per capita of Africa, behind Botswana, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Seychelles. This is largely due to its large petroleum reserves and low population.[Annual Statistical Bulletin, (2004), [http://www.opec.org/library/Annual%20Statistical%20Bulletin/interactive/2004/FileZ/XL/T33.HTM "World proven crude oil reserves by country, 1980–2004"], ''O.P.E.C.'', Accessed July 20, 2006][World Economic Outlook Database, (April, 2006), [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=512-941-914-446-612-666-614-672-311-946-213-137-911-962-193-674-122-676-912-548-313-556-419-678-513-181-316-682-913-684-124-273-339-921-638-948-514-686-218-688-963-518-616-728-223-558-516-138-918-353-748-196-618-278-522-692-622-694-156-142-624-449-626-564-628-283-228-853-924-288-233-293-632-566-636-964-634-182-238-453-662-968-960-922-423-714-935-862-128-716-611-456-321-722-243-965-248-718-469-724-253-576-642-936-643-961-939-813-644-199-819-184-172-524-132-361-646-362-648-364-915-732-134-366-652-734-174-144-328-146-258-463-656-528-654-923-336-738-263-578-268-537-532-742-944-866-176-369-534-744-536-186-429-925-178-746-436-926-136-466-343-112-158-111-439-298-916-927-664-846-826-299-542-582-443-474-917-754-544-698&S=NGDPDPC&CMP=0&x=14&y=10 "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects"], ''International Monetary Fund'', Accessed July 15, 2006]
The Libyan flag is the only national flag in the world with just one color - green - and no design, insignia, or other details.
History
Archaeological evidence indicates that from as early as the 8th millennium BC, Libya's coastal plain was inhabited by a Neolithic people who were skilled in the domestication of cattle and the cultivation of crops.[Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0013) "Early History of Libya"], ''U.S. Library of Congress'', Accessed July 11, 2006]
The area known in modern times as Libya was later occupied by a series of peoples, with the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, Vandals and Byzantines ruling all or part of the area. Although the Greeks and Romans left ruins at Cyrene, Leptis Magna and Sabratha, little other evidence remains of these ancient cultures.
Phoenicians
The Phoenicians were the first to establish trading posts in Libya, when the merchants of Tyre (in present-day Lebanon) developed commercial relations with the Berber tribes and made treaties with them to ensure their cooperation in the exploitation of raw materials.[Herodotus, (c.430 BC), [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/herod-libya1.html "'The Histories', Book IV.42–43"] ''Fordham University, New York'', Accessed July 18, 2006][Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0014) "Tripolitania and the Phoenicians"], ''U.S. Library of Congress'', Accessed July 11, 2006] By the 5th century BC, Carthage, the greatest of the Phoenician colonies, had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as Punic, came into being. Punic settlements on the Libyan coast included Oea (Tripoli), Libdah (Leptis Magna) and Sabratha. All these were in an area that was later called Tripolis, or "Three Cities". Libya's current-day capital Tripoli takes its name from this.
Greeks
The Greeks conquered Eastern Libya when, according to tradition, emigrants from the crowded island of Thera were commanded by the oracle at Delphi to seek a new home in North Africa. In 630 BC, they founded the city of Cyrene.[Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0015) "Cyrenaica and the Greeks"], ''U.S. Library of Congress'', Accessed July 11, 2006] Within 200 years, four more important Greek cities were established in the area: Barce (Al Marj); Euhesperides (later Berenice, present-day Benghazi); Teuchira (later Arsinoe, present-day Tukrah); and Apollonia (Susah), the port of Cyrene. Together with Cyrene, they were known as the Pentapolis (Five Cities).
Romans
The Romans unified all three regions of Libya, and for more than 600 years Tripolitania and Cyrenaica became prosperous Roman provinces.[Heuser, Stephen, (July 24, 2005), [http://www.boston.com/travel/articles/2005/07/24/when_romans_lived_in_libya/?rss_id=Boston+Globe+--+Travel+News "When Romans lived in Libya"], ''The Boston Globe'' Accessed July 18, 2006] Roman ruins, such as those of Leptis Magna, attest to the vitality of the region, where populous cities and even small towns enjoyed the amenities of urban life. Merchants and artisans from many parts of the Roman world established themselves in North Africa, but the character of the cities of Tripolitania remained decidedly Punic and, in Cyrenaica, Greek.
Under Islam
Libya was invaded by Uqba ibn Nafi in 644 and fully conquered in 655, forming part of the Ummayad Caliphate. This was superseded by the Abbasids in 750, but in practice Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the Aghlabid dynasty.
Arab soldiers, spreading their new religion of Islam, entered Cyrenaica in 642 and occupied Tripoli in 643. A succession of Arab and Berber dynasties then controlled what is now Libya. The culture of northwestern Libya developed along with the political units just west of it, while development in the east was strongly influenced by neighboring Egypt.
Ottoman Turks
The Ottoman Turks conquered the country in the mid-16th century, and the three States or "Wilayat" of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and Fezzan (which make up Libya) remained part of their empire with the exception of the virtual autonomy of the Karamanlis. The Karamanlis ruled from 1711 until 1835 mainly in Tripolitania, but had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan as well by the mid 18th century. This constituted a first glimpse in recent history of the united and independent Libya that was to re-emerge two centuries later. Ironically, reunification came about through the unlikely route of an invasion (Italo-Turkish War, 1911-1912) and occupation starting from 1911 when Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies.[Country Profiles, (May 16, 2006), [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1398437.stm "Timeline: Libya, a chronology of key events"] ''BBC News'', Accessed July 18, 2006]
Italian Colony
From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as Italian North Africa. From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies, Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania run by Italian governors.
In 1934, Italy adopted the name "Libya" (used by the Greeks for all of North Africa, except Egypt) as the official name of the colony (made up of the three Provinces of Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan). King Idris I, Emir of Cyrenaica, led Libyan resistance to Italian occupation between the two World Wars.
Between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through starvation in camps)."
From 1943 to 1951, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were under British administration, while the French controlled Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.[Hagos, Tecola W., (November 20, 2004), [http://www.tecolahagos.com/part4.htm "Treaty Of Peace With Italy (1947), Evaluation And Conclusion"], ''Ethiopia Tecola Hagos'', Accessed July 18, 2006]
United Kingdom of Libya
On November 21, 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1, 1952. Idris represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. On December 24, 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya, a constitutional and hereditary monarchy under King Idris.
The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled one of the world's poorest nations to establish an extremely wealthy state. Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government's finances, popular resentment began to build over the increased concentration of the nation's wealth in the hands of King Idris and the national elite. This discontent continued to mount with the rise of Nasserism and Arab nationalism throughout North Africa and the Middle East.
Coup of Muammar Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi
On September 1, 1969, a small group of military officers led by then 27-year-old army officer Muammar Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi staged a ''coup d’état'' against King Idris.[US Department of State's Background Notes, (November 2005) [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5425.htm "Libya - History"], ''U.S. Dept. of State'', Accessed July 14, 2006]
Politics
There are two branches of government in Libya. The "revolutionary sector" comprises Revolutionary Leader Gaddafi, the Revolutionary Committees and the remaining members of the 12-person Revolutionary Command Council, which was established in 1969.[Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0009) "Government and Politics of Libya"], ''U.S. Library of Congress'', Accessed July 14, 2006] The historical revolutionary leadership is not elected and cannot be voted out of office; they are in power by virtue of their involvement in the revolution.
Constituting the legislative branch of government, this sector comprises Local People's Congresses in each of the 1,500 urban wards, 32 Sha'biyat People's Congresses for the regions, and the National General People's Congress. These legislative bodies are represented by corresponding executive bodies (Local People's Committees, Sha'biyat People's Committees and the National General People's Committee/Cabinet).
Every four years, the membership of the Local People's Congresses elects their own leaders and the secretaries for the People's Committees, sometimes after many debates and a critical vote. The leadership of the Local People's Congress represents the local congress at the People's Congress of the next level. The members of the National General People's Congress elect the members of the National General People's Committee (the Cabinet) at their annual meeting.
The government controls both state-run and semi-autonomous media. In cases involving a violation of "certain taboos", the private press, like The Tripoli Post, has been censored,[Special Report 2006, (May 2, 2006), [http://www.cpj.org/censored/ "North Korea Tops CPJ list of '10 Most Censored Countries'"], ''Committee to Protect Journalists'', Accessed July 19, 2006] although articles that are critical of policies have been requested and intentionally published by the revolutionary leadership itself as a means of initiating reforms.
Political parties were banned by the 1972 Prohibition of Party Politics Act Number 71.[Case Study: Libya, (2001), [http://poli.vub.ac.be/cbw/cbw/003020100.html "Political Culture"], ''Educational Module on Chemical & Biological Weapons Nonproliferation'', Accessed July 14, 2006] According to the Association Act of 1971, the establishment of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) is allowed. However, because they are required to conform to the goals of the revolution, their numbers are small in comparison with those in neighbouring countries. Trade unions do not exist,[Hodder, Kathryn, (2000), [http://www.socialwatch.org/en/informesTematicos/20.html "Violations of Trade Union Rights"], ''Social Watch Africa'', Accessed July 14, 2006] but numerous professional associations are integrated into the state structure as a third pillar, along with the People's Congresses and Committees. These associations do not have the right to strike. Professional associations send delegates to the General People's Congress, where they have a representative mandate.
Foreign relations
Libya's foreign policies have undergone much fluctuation and change since the state was proclaimed on December 24, 1951. As a Kingdom, Libya maintained a definitively pro-Western stance, yet was recognized as belonging to the conservative traditionalist bloc in the League of Arab States (the present-day Arab League), of which it became a member in 1953.[Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0036) "Independent Libya"], ''U.S. Library of Congress'', Accessed July 14, 2006] The government was in close alliance with Britain and the United States; both countries maintained military base rights in Libya. Libya also forged close ties with France, Italy, Greece, and established full diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1955.
Although the government supported Arab causes, including the Moroccan and Algerian independence movements, it took little active part in the Arab-Israeli dispute or the tumultuous inter-Arab politics of the 1950s and early 1960s. The Kingdom was noted for its close association with the West, while it steered an essentially conservative course at home.[Abadi, Jacob (2000), [http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/JCS/bin/get7.cgi?directory=Fall00/&filename=Abadi.htm "Pragmatism and Rhetoric in Libya's Policy Toward Israel"], ''The Journal of Conflict Studies: Volume XX Number 1 Fall 2000, University of New Brunswick'', Accessed July 19, 2006]
After the 1969 coup, Gaddafi closed American and British bases and partially nationalized foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya. He also played a key role in promoting oil embargoes as a political weapon for challenging the West, hoping that an oil price rise and embargo in 1973 would persuade the West, especially the United States, to end support for Israel. Gaddafi rejected both Eastern (Soviet) communism and Western (United States) capitalism and claimed he was charting a middle course for his government.[The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, (2001–2005), [http://www.bartleby.com/65/qa/Qaddafi.html "Qaddafi, Muammar al-"], ''Bartleby Books'', Accessed July 19, 2006]
In the 1980s, Libya increasingly distanced itself from the United States, and was accused of committing mass acts of state-sponsored terrorism. When evidence of Libyan complicity was allegedly discovered in the Berlin discotheque terrorist bombing that killed two American servicemen, the United States responded by launching an aerial bombing attack against targets near Tripoli and Benghazi in April 1986.[Boyne, Walter J., (March, 1999), [http://www.afa.org/magazine/march1999/0399canyon.asp "El Dorado Canyon"], ''Air Force Association Journal, Vol. 82, No. 3'', Accessed July 19, 2006]
In 1991, two Libyan intelligence agents were indicted by federal prosecutors in the U.S. and Scotland for their involvement in the December 1988 bombing of Pan Am flight 103. Six other Libyans were put on trial in absentia for the 1989 bombing of UTA Flight 772. The UN Security Council demanded that Libya surrender the suspects, cooperate with the Pan Am 103 and UTA 772 investigations, pay compensation to the victims' families, and cease all support for terrorism. Libya's refusal to comply led to the approval of UNSC Resolution 748 on March 31, 1992, imposing sanctions on the state designed to bring about Libyan compliance. Continued Libyan defiance led to further sanctions by the UN against Libya in November 1993.[(2003), [http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/sanction/libya/indxirlb.htm "Libya"], Global Policy Forum, Accessed July 19, 2006]
In 1999, less than a decade after the sanctions were put in place, Libya began to make dramatic policy changes in regard to the Western world, including turning over the Lockerbie suspects for trial. This diplomatic breakthrough followed years of negotiation, including a visit by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan to Libya in December 1998, and personal appeals by Nelson Mandela. Eventually UK Foreign Secretary Robin Cook persuaded the Americans to accept a trial of the suspects in the Netherlands under Scottish law, with the UN Security Council agreeing to suspend sanctions as soon as the suspects arrived in the Netherlands for trial.
Later, in 2003, the Libyan government announced its decision to abandon its weapons of mass destruction programs and pay almost 3 billion US dollars in compensation to the families of Pan Am flight 103 as well as UTA Flight 772.[Marcus, Jonathan, (May 15, 2006), [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4774305.stm "Washington's Libyan fairy tale"], ''BBC News'', Accessed July 15, 2006] The decision was welcomed by many western nations and was seen as an important step for Libya toward rejoining the international community.[U.K. Politics, (March 25, 2004), [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/3566545.stm "Blair hails new Libyan relations"], ''BBC news'', Accessed July 15, 2006] Since 2003 the country has made efforts to normalize its ties with the European Union and the United States and has even coined the catchphrase, 'The Libya Model', an example intended to show the world what can be achieved through negotiation rather than force when there is goodwill on both sides.
An event considered pivotal by many in Libyan-Western relations is the HIV trials (1999–2007) of five Bulgarian nurses and a Palestinian doctor. Their release is seen as marking a new stage in Libyan-Western relations.
On May 15, 2006 the United States State Department announced it would fully restore diplomatic relations with Libya if it dismantled its weapons programs. The State Department also removed Libya from their state sponsored terrorism list which it had been on for 27 years.
On October 16, 2007, Libya was voted to serve on the United Nations Security Council for two years starting January 2008.
Human rights
According to the U.S. Department of State’s annual human rights report for 2007, Libya’s authoritarian regime continued to have a poor record in the area of human rights. Some of the numerous and serious abuses on the part of the government include poor prison conditions, arbitrary arrest and prisoners held incommunicado, and political prisoners held for many years without charge or trial. The judiciary is controlled by the government, and there is no right to a fair public trial. Libyans do not have the right to change their government. Freedom of speech, press, assembly, association, and religion are restricted. Independent human rights organizations are prohibited. Ethnic and tribal minorities suffer discrimination, and the state continues to restrict the labor rights of foreign jobs.
In 2005, the Freedom House rated political rights in Libya as "7" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating), civil liberties as "7" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free".
See also Freedom in the World 2006, List of indices of freedom
Municipalities
Libya was divided into several governorates (''muhafazat'') [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histatlas/northafrica/libya19431951.gif] before being split into 25 municipalities (''baladiyat''), see map of 25 baladiyat in ''Municipalities of Libya''.[Lahmeyer, Jan, (November 26, 2004), [http://www.library.uu.nl/wesp/populstat/Africa/libyap.htm "Historical demographical data of the administrative division"], ''Universiteit Utrecht'', Accessed July 19, 2006] Recently, Libya was divided into thirty two ''sha'biyah''.[Jamahiriya News Agency, (July 19, 2004), [http://mathaba.net/news/?x=60889 "Masses of the Basic People's Congresses select their Secretariats and People's Committees"] ''Mathaba News'', Accessed July 19, 2006] These were then further rearranged into twenty two. The following list and map show the previous arrangement which is slightly different than the current one.
Geography
Source: Wikipedia